Buddhism in the Islamic World: Monasteries, Memory, and Muslim Encounters

 

Buddhism’s westward reach into Bactria, Tokharistān, and Sīstān placed it in long‑term contact with communities that later became part of the Islamic world.

Abstract

This paper examines how Buddhism was perceived, administered, and memorialized in the early Islamic period across Iran, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Sindh. It integrates Muslim textual sources (e.g., the *Chachnāma*, al‑Bīrūnī’s *Taḥqīq mā li‑l‑Hind*), doxographical treatments (al‑Shahrastānī), narrative translations (*Bilawhar wa‑Būdāsaf*), and archaeological evidence (Nawbahār/Balkh, Merv, Termez, Kabul–Ghaznī corridor).

It also engages Christopher I. Beckwith’s arguments on Central Eurasian Buddhist monastic networks. I argue that Buddhism in the Islamic‑world tributary zone should be understood through (1) accommodation and amān‑based administration, (2) lexical/toponymic memory (e.g., *bahār*, *farḵār*, *bot*), and (3) institutional continuities between Buddhist monastic learning and Islamicate scholarly infrastructures.

Methodology and Sources

Primary texts were consulted in reliable editions and translations: al‑Bīrūnī’s *Taḥqīq mā li‑l‑Hind* (Sachau’s English edition, 1910), the *Chachnāma* (Kalichbeg’s English translation, 1900), al‑Shahrastānī’s *al‑Milal wa‑l‑Niḥal* (via Lawrence’s English rendering), and the Arabic geographical tradition (Ibn al‑Faqīh’s *Kitāb al‑Buldan*). Archaeological syntheses and site reports were used to anchor claims about Buddhist institutions (e.g., Merv, Termez, Mes Aynak, Kabul–Ghaznī, Sīstān). Page‑level citations are provided throughout using APA narrative style. Diacritics are used for key technical terms (e.g., *Nawbahār*, *śramaṇa*, *bahār*, *farḵār*).

1. Introduction

Buddhism’s westward reach into Bactria, Tokharistān, and Sīstān placed it in long‑term contact with communities that later became part of the Islamic world. Muslim rule altered the institutional ecology but did not erase Buddhist infrastructures immediately; instead, Buddhist elites and sites appear in administrative narratives and geographies, and their lexicon persists in Persian and Arabic. Beckwith (2012, pp. 18–23; 47–58) highlights that Buddhist monastic models in Central Eurasia influenced later Islamicate learning, while Beckwith (2015, pp. 101–136) situates key Buddhist‑Greek encounters in the Bactrian theater.

2. Muslim Textual Encounters with Buddhism

2.1 The *Chachnāma* and Buddhist Elites in Sind

The *Chachnāma*’s account of the Sind campaign depicts Buddhist dignitaries under titles such as “Samani” or “Samam Budh” at Nerun negotiating *amān* and tribute with Muḥammad b. Qāsim. The narrative frames accommodation rather than erasure: elite cooperation, release of captives, and restoration of civic life under Muslim protection. Kalichbeg’s translation records episodes around Nerun and the letters of Ḥajjāj b. Yūsuf (Kalichbeg, 1900, pp. 35–37; 42–44). Asif (2016, pp. 63–78) argues that the *Chachnāma* should be read as a 13th‑century political theory of governance, not merely an 8th‑century chronicle, yet this strengthens—rather than weakens—its value for understanding how Buddhists were positioned in Indo‑Islamic administrative imagination.

2.2 Al‑Bīrūnī’s Ethnography (d. 1048)

Al‑Bīrūnī notes that in Khurāsān Buddhists were called *šamanān/samānī* (from Sanskrit *śramaṇa*) and that their monuments were known as *bahār* (from *vihāra*) and *farḵār* (a Sogdian adaptation). He places living Buddhist practice primarily east of the Hindu Kush by his day while recalling monumental memory in the Iranian marches (Sachau, 1910, vol. I, p. 18; vol. II, p. 230).

2.3 Doxography and Classification: al‑Shahrastānī

Al‑Shahrastānī’s doxography distinguishes the *Barāhima* and the *Samāniyya* within “Indian” views, placing Buddhist asceticism in a comparative map of epistemology and prophecy (Lawrence, 1976, pp. 88–95). This is not strict ethnography but a window onto how Muslim scholars conceptualized Buddhism among world religions.

2.4 Narrative Transmission: *Bilawhar wa‑Būdāsaf*

The Arabic *Bilawhar wa‑Būdāsaf* adapted the Buddha’s life into Islamicate storytelling, later traveling into Georgian, Greek, and Latin as “Barlaam and Josaphat.” See Gimaret’s Arabic edition for key episodes (Gimaret, 1972, pp. 15–22) and the EI² entry for transmission (EI², s.v. *Bilawhar wa‑Būdāsaf*).

3. Buddhist Institutions and Archaeological Memory in the Islamicate World

3.1 Nawbahār (Balkh) and the Vihāra Lexicon

Arabic–Persian geographies remember the *Nawbahār* (“New Monastery”) at Balkh as a domed sanctuary with circumambulation and rich drapery—features consistent with a stūpa‑vihāra complex. Ibn al‑Faqīh preserves an early notice (ed. de Goeje, 1885, pp. 324–325). Grenet’s overview in *Encyclopaedia Iranica* synthesizes the philology tying *bahār/farḵār* to *vihāra* and explains the likely derivation of Persian *bot* (“idol”) from “Buddha” (Grenet, 2011/2020).

3.2 Site Clusters (West → East)

• **Merv/Gyaur Kala (Turkmenistan):** Buddhist stūpa‑monastery; Buddha head and painted “Merv Vase” from stūpa context (Kaim et al., 2002, pp. 93–109; UNESCO dossier).

• **Kuh‑e Khwāja (Sīstān, Iran):** Late antique temple complex with Indian‑Buddhist inflections (Grenet, 2024, pp. 99–132).

• **Kara Tepe & Fayaz Tepe (Termez, Uzbekistan):** Monastic caves/stupas with inscriptions and polychrome painting; early horizons 1st c. CE (Baums, 2021; Iranica “Buddhism IV”).

• **Mes Aynak (Logar, Afghanistan):** Extensive Buddhist city; rescue archaeology (Francfort, 2017).

• **Tepe Narenj / Tapa Sardar (Kabul–Ghaznī):** Royal monastery complexes with rich clay sculpture (Faccenna & Vidale, 1995).

• **Haḍḍa (Jalālābād):** Greco‑Buddhist sculpture corpus (DAFA reports).

• **Taxila & Takht‑i‑Bahi (Pakistan):** Major monastic universities (UNESCO WHC).

4. Beckwith’s Central Eurasian Lens

Beckwith (2012) proposes that Buddhist monastic institutions across Central Eurasia provided models for later Islamicate scholarly structures, including aspects of madrasa organization. In *Greek Buddha*, Beckwith (2015, pp. 101–136) argues that Pyrrho’s encounter with Buddhist thought likely occurred within the Bactrian/Scythian milieu, underscoring the importance of the same corridor that Islamic geographers and administrators later traversed.

5. Discussion and Conclusion

Synthesizing textual and archaeological evidence with Beckwith’s institutional focus suggests a three‑part model: administrative accommodation (as in *Chachnāma*), lexical/toponymic memory (*bahār*, *farḵār*, *bot*, *Nawbahār*), and educational/institutional continuity from viharas to Islamicate learning. Rather than a narrative of disappearance, the record points to negotiated coexistence, reframing, and memorialization.

---

Appendix A: Glossary of Key Terms (with Sources)

• **šamanān / samānī** — Muslim renderings of Sanskrit *śramaṇa* “ascetic; Buddhist”. Noted by al‑Bīrūnī in Khurāsān (Sachau, 1910, vol. I, p. 18).

• **bahār** — from Sanskrit *vihāra* “monastery”, used in frontier zones (Sachau, 1910, vol. II, p. 230).

• **farḵār** — Sogdian adaptation of *vihāra*; toponymic as well (Grenet, 2011/2020).

• **Nawbahār** — “New Monastery”; the famous Buddhist complex at Balkh (Ibn al‑Faqīh, ed. de Goeje, 1885, pp. 324–325).

• **bot** — Persian “idol,” likely from “Buddha,” reflecting Buddhist image‑cult memory (Grenet, 2011/2020).

• **amān** — Islamic safe‑conduct for protected non‑Muslim subjects; in *Chachnāma* letters (Kalichbeg, 1900, pp. 42–44).

Appendix B: Annotated Table of Major Buddhist Sites (Islamic‑majority Countries)

Site

Region (Country)

Period / Notes

Source (page)

Nawbahār (Balkh)

Balkh, Afghanistan

Monastery/stūpa complex; circumambulation

Ibn al‑Faqīh, ed. de Goeje, 1885, pp. 324–325

Gyaur Kala (Merv)

Mary, Turkmenistan

Stūpa‑monastery; Buddha head; painted vase

Kaim et al., 2002, pp. 93–109

Kuh‑e Khwāja

Sīstān, Iran

Temple with Indian‑Buddhist inflections

Grenet, 2024, pp. 99–132

Kara Tepe

Termez, Uzbekistan

Cave/terrace monastery; murals

Iranica “Buddhism IV” (Baums, 2021)

Fayaz Tepe

Termez, Uzbekistan

Monastery with inscriptions, polychrome

Iranica “Buddhism IV”

Mes Aynak

Logar, Afghanistan

Buddhist city; rescue archaeology

Francfort, 2017

Tepe Narenj

Kabul, Afghanistan

Royal monastery; clay sculpture

Faccenna & Vidale, 1995

Tapa Sardar

Ghaznī, Afghanistan

Major monastic art center

Faccenna & Vidale, 1995

Haḍḍa

Nangarhar, Afghanistan

Greco‑Buddhist sculpture

DAFA reports

Taxila

Punjab, Pakistan

Serial WHS; universities

UNESCO WHC dossier

Takht‑i‑Bahi

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Hilltop monastery

UNESCO WHC dossier

Appendix C: Selected Primary Excerpts (Arabic/Persian English)

1) *Chachnāma* (Kalichbeg, 1900, pp. 35–37; 42–44): Episodes around Nerun and letters of Ḥajjāj b. Yūsuf—*amān*, tribute, and protection of local elites (rendered here in paraphrase with key phrasing).

2) Al‑Bīrūnī, *Taḥqīq mā li‑l‑Hind* (Sachau, 1910, vol. I, p. 18; vol. II, p. 230): On *šamanān/samānī* and *bahār/farḵār* as frontier lexicon for Buddhists and their monasteries.

3) Ibn al‑Faqīh, *Kitāb al‑Buldan* (ed. de Goeje, 1885, pp. 324–325): Description of the *Nawbahār* of Balkh with circumambulation and drapery (paralleled to pilgrimage forms).

Appendix D: A2 Printable Map (Sites & Coordinates List)

Site

Approx. Coordinates

Region

Balkh (Nawbahār)

36.75°N, 66.90°E

Afghanistan

Merv (Gyaur Kala)

37.67°N, 62.18°E

Turkmenistan

Kuh‑e Khwāja

31.03°N, 61.50°E

Iran

Kara Tepe (Termez)

37.22°N, 67.27°E

Uzbekistan

Fayaz Tepe (Termez)

37.23°N, 67.27°E

Uzbekistan

Mes Aynak

34.12°N, 69.27°E

Afghanistan

Tepe Narenj

34.49°N, 69.17°E

Afghanistan

Tapa Sardar

33.54°N, 68.42°E

Afghanistan

Haḍḍa

34.41°N, 70.30°E

Afghanistan

Taxila

33.74°N, 72.84°E

Pakistan

Takht‑i‑Bahi

34.33°N, 71.94°E

Pakistan

References

Asif, M. A. (2016). *A Book of Conquest: The Chachnama and Muslim Origins in South Asia*. Harvard University Press.

Baums, S. (2021). Buddhism IV. Buddhist Sites in Afghanistan and Central Asia. In *Encyclopaedia Iranica* (online).

Beckwith, C. I. (2012). *Warriors of the Cloisters: The Central Asian Origins of Science in the Medieval World*. Princeton University Press.

Beckwith, C. I. (2015). *Greek Buddha: Pyrrho’s Encounter with Early Buddhism in Central Asia*. Princeton University Press.

de Goeje, M. J. (Ed.). (1885). *Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum II: Ibn al‑Faqīh, Kitāb al‑Buldan*. Brill.

Faccenna, D., & Vidale, M. (1995). Excavations at Tapa Sardar and Tepe Narenj: New Evidence for Buddhist Art in Afghanistan. *East and West*, 45(1–4), 35–88.

Francfort, H.‑P. (2017). Mes Aynak et la tradition bouddhique du Logar. *Arts Asiatiques*, 72, 45–66.

Gimaret, D. (Ed.). (1972). *Bilawhar wa‑Būdāsaf*. Damascus: Institut Français de Damas.

Grenet, F. (2011/2020). Buddhism II. In Islamic Times. In *Encyclopaedia Iranica* (online, revised).

Grenet, F. (2024). Kuh‑e Khwāja revisited: Religious iconography in Sīstān. *Iranica Antiqua*, LIX(1), 99–132.

Kaim, B., etc. (2002). A Buddhist Complex at Merv. *Iran*, 40, 93–109.

Kalichbeg Fredunbeg, M. (Trans.). (1900). *Chachnāma: An Ancient History of Sind*. Karachi.

Lawrence, B. B. (1976). *Shahrastani on the Indian Religions*. Brill.

Sachau, E. C. (Trans.). (1910). *Al‑Bīrūnī’s India*. London: Kegan Paul.

UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Dossiers on Taxila; Takht‑i‑Bahi; Ancient Mer